The Napoleonic Wars in Europe: A Battle For Control

Introduction

The Napoleonic Wars refer to a series of wars fought between shifting alliances of European powers and Napoleonic France. Resultantly, it produced a short-lived period of French hegemony over much of Europe. The Napoleonic Wars and the French Revolutionary Wars were made up of a 23-year period of continuous warfare that ended with the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo and his abdication on June 22, 1815.

Setting the Stage for the Napoleonic Wars in Europe

The history of Europe took a sudden and defining turn in the 1790s. The French Revolution emerged as a critical event, changing the world’s future through fire and blood. A historic landslide opened up a radical new era that changed the lives of many, albeit at a terrible cost. Considered one of the bloodiest episodes in history, the French Revolution was the foundation of numerous large-scale conflicts that emerged in its wake. These conflicts lasted from 1803 to 1815 and are collectively known as the Napoleonic Wars. With their vicious nature,  magnitude, and the catastrophic loss of lives that they caused, the Napoleonic Wars showed the world that a fundamental change in history is always unforgiving and bloody.

The late 1700s were a very restless period in France. The so-called  “Ancien Regime”      (Old Regime), as the French monarchy was called at the time, was the leading body controlling France’s social and political aspects. It ruled France for several centuries; however, gradually it began to fail in several key aspects. By the 1780s, this monarchy became unpopular amongst the common people and was openly hated.

At the time, France was one of the largest nations in Europe but was suffering from debilitating economic difficulties. Although it was also one of the wealthiest nations on the continent, that wealth was not for all to enjoy. Most of it was reserved for the nation’s nobility and the sprawling court of the monarchs. France was gripped by instability as its citizens suffered social inequality, high taxes, and a lack of rights.

The lowest class consisted of peasants, who were rightfully the most displeased. Even the middle-class bourgeoisie—the traders and craftsmen—were under pressure from overly high taxes. Such inequality could not endure forever. The Old Regime and the nobility soon faced the entirety of the French populace as their opponent. The crisis deepened when France became unable to finance its mounting government debt, resulting in a significant economic depression. Unemployment was widespread, food prices were sky-high, and discontent amongst the people was evident. King Louis XVI of France and his nobles were now facing a crisis that could not be controlled. 

French Revolution: A Turning Point

In 1789, the crisis finally erupted, signaling the start of the French Revolution. For the next decade, this struggling European nation descended into chaos and bloodshed as the poor people of France took up arms against the monarchy. By 1792, the Old Regime, the monarchy, was abolished, bringing an end to many centuries of nobility and their rule.

The First French Republic was declared on September 22, 1972, and in the following year, King Louis XVI was executed on the guillotine. His death marked a truly revolutionary change in Europe’s history, even though it was a change born from chaos. However, this was not the only outcome of the revolution; Napoleon Bonaparte also emerged from the whirlwind.    

The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

A native of Corsica, Napoleon Bonaparte was the son of minor Italian nobles. Due to his ambitious character, he swiftly rose through the ranks of the military and eventually became one of the leading figures of the French Revolution. As a man, he was marked with an insatiable thirst for power. From the devastation of the revolutionary period, Napoleon emerged as a leader, establishing a military dictatorship that aimed to revive France in a new light. This was the birth of democracy and social equality in Europe, a change that required a lot of struggle.

In a record-breaking time, Bonaparte accomplished a stunning feat. He placed the wounded France back on its feet, solidifying its economy, and creating a strong bureaucratic system, and most importantly, he managed to create a powerful standing army. Following the revolution, Europe experienced a series of changes that created a complex socio-political picture. New alliances formed among the world’s foremost powers, and tensions rose continually. There was a noticeable change in the balance of power among the major states in Europe, and the whole region was critically unstable as relations between them rapidly crumbled.

Between 1803 and 1815, new alliances were made almost yearly throughout Europe, and it was common for allies to become enemies at a moment’s notice. Far in the east, Russia was steadily growing in power, expanding its borders through its conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and Poland.

The venerable Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire made a powerful alliance, while the United Kingdom and France were locked in an economic stalemate. The European politics had set the stage for a war of massive proportions. Most of these major powers saw Napoleon’s rise to prominence and the subsequent French expansion as a direct threat to the international system and their interests.

Timeline Of Napoleonic Wars (1803 to 1815)

Explaining the Major Battles in the Napoleonic Era

War of the Third Coalition (1803-1806)

The British, fueled by their growing lack of control in Europe and alarmed by the threat of Napoleon on their overseas colonies, declared war on France in 1803, two years after Russia and Austria created the Third Coalition intending to defeat Napoleon. In that year, the first serious clash of the Napoleonic Wars occurred in Europe.

Napoleon Bonaparte was a military genius. His enemies were quick to discover this fact, as they suffered some devastating defeats. In October of 1805, Bonaparte conducted a series of daring maneuvers that allowed him to trap an entire Austrian army during the Ulm Campaign.

Soon after, in December, he further proved his skills in strategy during the legendary Battle of Austerlitz when he decisively defeated a larger Russo-Austrian army. This is regarded as one of the most critical battles of the whole war and solidified Napoleon’s reputation as one of the greatest military commanders in history.

Even so, 1805 brought a significant setback for the French when they were crushed at the naval Battle of Trafalgar. Due to inexperienced leadership and poor choice of action, the combined Franco-Spanish fleet was outgunned and decimated by the British under the command of Admiral Lord Nelson. This defeat extinguished Napoleon’s hopes of invading Britain.

War of the Fourth Coalition (1806-1807)

With the Third Coalition defeated, France continued its rapid growth in power. This led to the formation of the Fourth Coalition—an alliance between Sweden, Saxony, Russia, Prussia, and Britain—and the continuation of the war. However, not even this powerful alliance was enough to stop Napoleon. On October 14, 1806, he utterly crushed the armies of Saxony and Prussia in the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt.

Following this victory, France occupied the Kingdom of Prussia.  A few months later, in June 1807, the Russians were next to be stunned. At the bloody Battle of Friedland, Napoleon secured a decisive win, inflicting close to 40,000 casualties on the Russians. These defeats prompted a quick disintegration of the Fourth Coalition and a peace with Napoleon that was never to last.

War of the Fifth Coalition (1809)

In 1809, the war in mainland Europe resumed in earnest, with a new coalition formed against Napoleon. Although poorly prepared, this coalition led by Austria would soon prove to be a challenge to Napoleon’s reputation. On May 22, 1809, at the Battle of Aspern-Essling, the Austrian Archduke Charles won a stunning victory against Bonaparte. This was Napoleon’s first defeat in over a decade. However, he was quick to recuperate and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Wagram in July, which brought an untimely end to the Fifth Coalition.

The Peninsular War (1808-1814)

The peace that came with the end of the Fourth Coalition was quick to fall through. The French now had to direct their attention to the south. The people of Spain opposed the occupation of their country and soon rose in revolt. This event known as the “Dos de Mayo” uprising grew out into the Peninsular War, pushing Britain and Portugal into a bitter conflict against France for the possession of the Iberian Peninsula. That war would last until 1814.

Taking a considerable and ambitious risk, Napoleon put everything on the line when he began a massive invasion of Russia in 1812. At that time, it was one of the most significant invasion forces in military history, ready to subdue the mighty giant that was Imperial Russia. Unfortunately, the French were soon to find out that it was too much to tackle. After several crucial battles, such as those at Smolensk and Borodino, Napoleon reached the capital, Moscow, only to find it abandoned.

The ravaging eastern winter soon set in, forcing the French into a long and decimating retreat out of Russia. Napoleon’s army was nearly destroyed, with casualties being unprecedented. Many historians agree that this was the point where it all went downhill for France.

War of the Sixth Coalition (1812-1814)

With the once-mighty army of Napoleon halved and severely weakened, his enemies grouped up into the Sixth Coalition to finally defeat him. They managed to defeat him after a bitter campaign and a major victory at Leipzig. By March 1814, Paris also fell, and Napoleon was exiled to the Island of Elba. However, he was not to be contained so easily.

The Hundred Days and the War of the Seventh Coalition (1815)

In February of 1815, Bonaparte made a daring escape from captivity and once again took control over France, resuming the war. Soon after, the Seventh Coalition formed against him and landed a decisive, final blow to his effort at the famous Battle of Waterloo in 1815. This time, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he remained in captivity until his death six years later.

Conclusion

The Napoleonic Wars significantly changed the political and social landscape of Europe. They led to the collapse of centuries-old monarchies, changing the power dynamics and reshaping the national boundaries. The wars also led to the Congress of Vienna, a series of diplomatic meetings to discuss the future of Europe in the aftermath of Napoleon’s escapades. The Napoleonic Wars in Europe paved the way for military innovations and revolutionary ideas. Moreover, it set the stage for the modern state system in Europe, dismissing the monarchical structure and solidifying the national identities.

---

If you want to submit your articles and/or research papers, please check the Submissions page.

The views and opinions expressed in this article/paper are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect the editorial position of Paradigm Shift.