What is a language?
A language is a communication system, consisting of words used by humans. Language is not a divine gift but the output of human ingenuity. Languages exist unconsciously under social needs and are brought up consciously for economic, political, scientific, religious, and legal needs. Every developed language has its syntactic, phonological, morphemic, and semantic system. The expansion of dialects creates languages and the contraction of languages creates dialects. When a language moves from its primary status (mother tongue) to a secondary status (intellectual and economic tongue), it is known as the development of a language. Currently, there are almost 6500 languages spoken in the world. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Urdu is the world’s 10th most widely spoken language—with 230 million total speakers. Studying the origin of the Urdu language is important for understanding the cultural and historical contexts that shape its current form and usage.
Difference between Language and Dialect
A “language” in its standard form, is bigger than a dialect, spoken by more people, and is associated with the wealthy, educated, and dominant class. It has much more prestige than a dialect and has official recognition. A language has proper grammar rules, a dictionary, a writing status, and an orthographic system. It has wide geographic reach and possesses a nation-uniting power. A dialect, on the other hand, is a variety or subset of a language, spoken in a particular region, and has no proper writing status and orthographic system. It is informal, has less prestige, and creates differences. It only has a “spoken form” and no official status.
Urdu Language and Local Dialects
The Urdu language developed from Sanskrit-and-Prakrit-born dialects (Khari Boli, Mewati, Brij Bhasha, Haryani, Apbharnash, and Pali) and languages (Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindi). Sanskrit and Prakrit were Indo-Aryan languages. Sanskrit was spoken 1500BC and Prakrit 1000BC in the Indian subcontinent.
The Family of Urdu Language
Linguists have divided all the world’s languages into 10 major families—Indo-European is one of them. The Indo-European family came into existence in 2000 BC and gave birth to Indo-Aryan (1500BC) in the Subcontinent. Urdu belongs to Indo-Aryan: the sub-branch of the Indo-European family. English, Sanskrit, Latin, Persian, Punjabi, Bengali, and the Hindi language also belong to the Indo-European family.
Different Names of the Urdu Language
The word “Urdu” comes from the Turkish language, meaning army or camp. In Scandinavia, “Urth” means gathering; in Latin, “Horde” means nomad people; and in the Aryan language, “Urd” means human society. Until the last quarter of the eighteenth century, Urdu was called Hindvi, Dehlvi, Dakni, Gujri, Rekhta, and Hindustani.
In 1806, Mughal ruler Shah Alam called the language “Hindi” in his book, Ajaib Al-Qasas. First of all, Emperor Shahjahan proposed to call this language “Urdu.” In 1809, the famous Urdu poet Mushafi called the Urdu language “Hindavi” in his poetry.
مصحفی فارسی کو طاق پہ رکھ
اب ہے اشعار ہندوی کا رواج
Another prominent Urdu poet Insha Allah Khan Insha used the word Urdu in the sense of the city of Delhi in his book “Darya-e-Latafat”.
In his book “Bagh-o-Bahar,” Mir Amman has called Urdu as “Urdu-e-Mualla.” John Gilchrist always called the Urdu language “Hindustani.” Amir Khusro, Mir Taqi Mir, and Asadullah Khan Ghalib would use the word “Rekhta” for the Urdu language.
ریختہ کے تمھیں استاد نہیں ہو غالب
کہتے ہیں اگلے زمانے میں کوئی میر بھی تھا
While Nawab Mirza Khan Daagh Dehlvi called it Urdu.
اردو ہے جس کا نام ہمیں جانتے ہیں داغ
ہندوستاں میں دھوم ہماری زبان کی ہے
Four Outstanding Theories about the Origin of the Urdu Language
Urdu in Sindh
Urdu came into existence in the Subcontinent from 600AD to 1800AD through the interaction of Arabs, Afghans, Turks, and local inhabitants.
The settlement of Arab traders on the Malabar Coast in 600AD and Muhammad bin Qasim’s invasion of Sindh in 712AD are noteworthy events in the genesis of the Urdu language. Arabs ruled the land of Sindh from 600AD to 1000AD; affecting not only the culture and languages of the local inhabitants but also the demography of the Subcontinent to a considerable extent. According to the theory of Syed Sulaiman Nadvi’s “Urdu in Sindh,” Urdu was born in Sindh during this period.
Urdu in Punjab
In 1000AD, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni became the ruler of Punjab and settled in a new city—Mehmoodpur. Ghaznavi’s Empire lasted till 1200AD. According to the theory of Hafiz Mehmood Sherani “Urdu in Punjab,” the language was born in Punjab during 1000AD-1200AD.
Urdu in Delhi and Deccan
Qutb ud-Din Aibak became the ruler and shifted the capital from Punjab to Delhi. The Aibak Empire remained till 1294AD. According to the theory of Masud Husain Khan “Urdu in Delhi,” the birthplace of Urdu is Delhi.
Later, Alauddin Khalji became the ruler of Delhi in 1294 AD and shifted the capital from Delhi to Deccan. Khilji’s empire remained till 1325 AD. According to the theory of Naseeruddin Hashmi “Urdu in Deccan,” the real birthplace of Urdu is Deccan.
Urdu in Balochistan
There are three prominent theories about the development and origin of the Urdu language in Balochistan. Dr. Inam-ul-Haq Kausar says that the Baloch are bilingual. In Qalat Division, Balochi and Brahvi; in Western Balochistan, Balochi and Pashto; in South-Eastern Balochistan, Sindhi and Brahvi; and North-Eastern Balochistan, Balochi, Pashto and Saraiki are spoken.
While Quetta has been a center for linguistic diversity, Dr. Kausar says that in a bilingual atmosphere, it becomes natural for Urdu to take root and develop in Balochistan.
Dr. Agha Muhammad Nasir argues that Urdu entered Balochistan with the arrival of English spy Henry Pottinger at the beginning of the 19th century. Similarly, Dr. Farooq Ahmed believes that this region was introduced to the Urdu language when Syed Ahmed Shaheed’s army was passing through Balochistan to wage jihad against the Sikhs in 1826.
Urdu in erstwhile Sarhad or Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
According to Dr. Farigh Bukhari, the first two great works in the Urdu language in Sarhad (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) are “Tafsir-e-Hindi” which was written in 1350, and “Khairul Bayan” which was written in 1530.
However, in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa or erstwhile Sarhad, Urdu prose and journalism began in 1854 with the Urdu newspapers “Khush Bahar” and “Murtazai.” Famous official letters or the Kabul Diary (Khatoot-e-Kabul) have also been written in Urdu in 1878.
Here, literary activities and the tradition of Urdu poetry began in 1900 with the foundation of “Bizm-e-Sukhan.” A few prominent progressive writers also belonged to this geography, and they developed Urdu literature to a great extent. Naseeruddin Naseer is the first Urdu fiction writer of this land. In 1914, he wrote his first three Urdu fictional works—Suhagan, Maulavi Sahib, and Jawala Makkhi.
Distinguished Colleges, Organizations, and Movements for the Development of the Urdu Language
Fort William College
Fort William College was founded by Lord Wellesley in 1800 in Calcutta to train European administrators and British officials in Indian languages. In this college, law, geography, mathematics, English literature, ancient Indian history, Islamic jurisprudence, ethics, and economy were taught in Urdu. Arabic, Persian, and Sanskrit were also taught at this college.
Dr. John Gilchrist was the head of the Urdu department. Mir Amman, Haider Bakhsh Haidari, Lallu Lal, Sher Ali Afsos, Kazim Ali Jawan and Mazhar Ali Khan Wila were some of the prominent authors and translators of the college. Bagh-o-Bahar, Tota Kahani, Prem Sagar, Araish-e-Mehfal, Ganj-e-Khobi, Bagh-e-Urdu, Akhlaq-e-Hindi, and Mazhab-e-Ishq are considered among the best Urdu books of the college. The college developed Urdu prose to an unimaginable degree.
Delhi College
The Delhi College was founded in 1825 and aimed at teaching oriental and Western learning to junior and senior British officials as well as Hindustani students in Urdu.
J.H. Taylor, Felix Boutros, and Aloys Sprenger were the first three principals of the college. Maulana Muhammad Hussain Azad, Zakaullah, Deputy Nazeer Ahmed, and Mr. Ram Chandar are some of the epoch-making personalities of this college. For the development of the Urdu language, the college had two societies: the Translation Society and the Vernacular Society. After the rebellions of 1857, the college was closed down in 1877 by the British.
Anjuman-e-Punjab Or “Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in the Punjab”
In 1857, the War of Independence created great mistrust between the Indian people and the British Government. To end this mistrust, in 1865, on the instructions of the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, Donald Friell McLeod, the Secretary of Education Colonel Holroyd organized this association—Anjuman-e-Punjab or “Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in the Punjab.”
Dr. G. W. Leitner was the principal of the association. Revival of ancient studies, promotion of industry and commerce, restoration of trust between the Indian people and the British Government, popularization of education, restoration of peace, and making the Indian people patriotic were among the main objectives of this association.
Maulana Hali, Maulana Azad, and Pundit Munphool played an important role in the success of this association. All activities were conducted in Urdu language. Natural poetry, criticism, modern poetry, and objectivism in Urdu literature originated from this association.
Aligarh Movement
The Aligarh Movement was the brainchild of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. The movement was founded in 1875 and proved a turning point in the development of the Urdu language and literature. Urdu prose got a lot of promotion under this movement.
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan founded the Scientific Society in 1863 and issued a monthly Urdu journal—Tehzeeb-ul-Akhlaq in 1871.
In 1867, on behalf of the British Indian Association, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan penned a letter to the Governor-General that there should be a peculiar Urdu department in Calcutta University for Muslim students, but the Hindus strongly opposed this demand and the “Urdu-Hindi controversy” erupted. The Aligarh movement enabled the Urdu language to be used in political, social, economic, religious, legal, and literary debates in the Subcontinent. Urdu essay writing and journalism started under this movement۔ It not only proved to be helpful in the development of Urdu language and literature but the creation of Pakistan is also indebted to this crusade.
Urdu Defense Association
When Governor McDonnell replaced Urdu with Hindi as the official language of UP and Bihar in 1900, under the chairmanship of Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan formed an organization in the name of “The Urdu Defense Association.” Governor McDonnell was reluctant in regard to the Association’s activities and threatened that if the Association was not made ineffective, government funding to Aligarh College would be withheld. Resultantly, Muhsinul Mulk had to part ways with this association for the time being and later continued this movement under the name of Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu.
Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu
Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu was founded in 1903. Allama Shibli Nomani, Maulana Habibur Rahman Khan, and Molvi Aziz Mirza successively became secretaries of the Anjuman.
The father of Urdu, Molvi Abdul Haq became secretary of the Anjuman in 1912. From 1903 to 1912, the head office of the Anjuman was at Aligarh; from 1912 to 1938, at Aurangabad; and from 1938 to 1947, at Delhi. The head office of the Anjuman has been in Karachi since 1947.
There are more than 100,000 books on various topics in the library of the Anjuman. Publication of valuable Urdu literary books, magazines, and journals, and dissemination of modern scientific education in simple Urdu language are among the main objectives of the Anjuman. The Anjuman has played a great role in the promotion of the Urdu language and literature. The literary works of Molvi Abdul Haq, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Maulana Shibli Nomani, Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali, Deputy Nazeer Ahmed, and Muhammad Hussain Azad are commendable for the development of Urdu language and literature. Urdu newspapers and magazines like Zamindar, Hamdard, Al-Hilal, Comrade, Nawa-e-Waqt, and Sitara-e-Subh proved helpful not only in the defense of the Urdu language but also in the welfare of the Muslims of the subcontinent.
Today, the Urdu language is rich in great poets like Mir, Iqbal, Ghalib, Faiz, Josh, and Jaun Elia; eminent fiction writers like Manto, Ahmad Nadeem Qasmi, Prem Chand and Intezar Hussain; valuable elegy writers like Mir Anees and Mirza Dabeer; and well-known researchers and critics like Dr. Wazir Agha, Farman Fateh Puri, Dr. Anwar Sadeed and Dr. Salim Akhtar. Nowadays, Urdu is spoken, read, and written in every corner of the world.
Conclusion
To sum up the significance of Urdu, we can conclude that it has enabled the Muslims of the subcontinent to stand on their own feet in every sphere of life.
Today, Urdu is not only the language of communication but also the language of science, economy, literature, education, and religion. Urdu is the lingua franca in Pakistan—the language of unity and national integration. The creation of Pakistan is thoroughly indebted to the Urdu language. According to Article 251 of the 1973 constitution, Urdu is the national language of Pakistan. The development and survival of Urdu lie in its speaking, reading, and writing. So, speak, read, and write Urdu.
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The views and opinions expressed in this article/paper are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect the editorial position of Paradigm Shift.
He is an Urdu lecturer at Govt Boys Degree College Pishin, Balochistan.