The Impact of the War on Terror on Pakistan’s National Image through a Constructivist Lens

The national image of any country plays a crucial role in its survival and sustainability. It serves as the backbone for the state’s prosperity and progress. A positive national image guarantees the state’s well-being, while a negative image can drag it into a quagmire of failures. This situation holds for Pakistan, a country facing numerous crises. One of the key reasons behind these crises is the tarnished national image of Pakistan. Therefore, focusing on devising policies to rebuild and improve Pakistan’s national image is crucial.

This research essay aims to critically analyze the policies implemented during the pre- and post-era of the Global War on Terror eras to identify the policy factors pertinent to investigating Pakistan’s national image through the constructivist lens. Since joining the global war on terror, Pakistan has encountered various challenges, including a negative perception on a worldwide scale, as the world often associates Pakistan and its citizens with terrorism. Although neither Pakistan nor its people were directly involved in the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan provided its soil for conducting military operations against the militants hiding in Afghanistan who were involved in the 9/11 attacks.

Research Focus and Objective

The aim and objective of this research essay is to find the answer to the research question  “How Pakistan’s national image was impacted during the Global War on Terror and what should be the way forward for image building?” using a constructivist lens.

Theoretical Framework

Constructivism is an important theory in the field of International Relations, having a holistic ontology that came into being after three debates in international relations and rose prominently during the 1980s when thinkers and authors challenged the materialism and individualism foundational to realist theory and were well-equipped to consider the developments surrounding the end of the Cold War (Kappenberg, 2019). According to constructivism, social interactions, perceptions, and mutual understanding shape International Relations. One of the core concepts of constructivism about social reality, i.e. power and identity, is constructed through interactions and social agreements. Moreover, another important key concept of constructivism is about the identity and the role of actors, i.e., states develop identities through social interaction (Burchill, 2005). According to Ted Hopf(1998), identity construction shapes how actors see themselves and others (Hopf, 1998). Alexander Wendt is an important scholar of constructivism credited with writing a book titled Social Theory of International Politics. In his book, Wendt mentions that “the structures of human association are determined primarily by shared ideas rather than material forces” (Wendt, 1999). 

Defining National Image

National image refers to the public’s perception or opinion of a nation, illustrating how the general public perceives a country and its citizens. It is the impression that both its citizens and people from other countries have of a country. It encompasses the reputation, mental image, and notion that are now linked with or recognized about a nation (Okoroafor & Dike, 2010). Kotler (et al., 2002, p.141) defines the country’s image or national image of a country as the volume of a diverse range of opinions that people hold regarding a particular nation (Saliu, 2017).

National image and national identity are essential concepts that, according to Huddy and Khatib (2007), describe a subjective or internalized sense of belonging to the nation (Hase, 2021). For any country, its national image is like its national brand, according to Zhang et al. (2012, p.77) is dependent upon public diplomacy, international relations, and international perception (Saliu, 2017). According to Meng(2020), national image is for any country an intangible asset and a centerpiece for its soft power(Meng, 2020). This is so because the behavior and activities of the people of any nation go a long way in defining their national image (Okoroafor & Dike,2010). In the 21st century, a country’s survival is only possible with a full national image on a global scale. Therefore, according to Hu et al. (2020), national image building (NIB) has become a critical strategy in public diplomacy (Hu et al., 2020).

Pakistan’s National Image

As a country’s vital intangible asset, national image is the centerpiece and an essential expression of its soft power. (Meng, 2020)

Emphasizing what Meng (2020 stated above, the national image or soft image of any country is like the backbone of its prosperity. National Image and how a country is perceived globally significantly impacts its international relations, global standing, tourism, security, economy, and foreign relations. Pakistan’s national image suffers considerably due to internal weakness, policy failures, involvement in terrorism, and various other factors. According to a Pakistan-focused survey presented in The Economist, “Think about Pakistan, and you might get terrified. Few countries have so much potential to cause trouble regionally and worldwide.” (Ahmad, 2013).

Moreover, Dr Sheikh, in an interview with Nadir Cheema, stated, “It is, of course, a very complex exercise, projecting an image. The complexity stems from the fact that there are competing centres of power in Pakistan, all of whom have very different visions of what kind of image Pakistan ought to project internationally. If you take the political classes, the elected government, for example, the emphasis, exceptionally since 2008, would be to try to project an image of the country as one that is genuinely engaged in the process of democratic transformation, of a country that highly values the ideals of liberal modernity, without of course compromising its Islamic identity (although even that Islamic identity is often cast by sections of the political classes as a modern identity, one that can accommodate ideas that might be considered broadly progressive). It is no secret that the security establishment, led by the military, is principally involved with the international security narrative, projecting this image of Pakistan as a complex, resilient state primarily concerned with the defence of its frontiers and questions of national sovereignty. Moreover, that image then tends increasingly to convey the picture of a highly militarized country. You have these two opposites. Moreover, in between, we have an extensive range of images being projected by what is broadly called the civil society of Pakistan in the process of significant social transformation. The emphasis here is broadly on a country prepared to take its place in the international community of nations as liberal and forward-looking… along the lines that many within sections of civil society believe that Mr. Jinnah was interested in projects.” (Cheema, 2017)

It is due to factors like political instability, militarization, terrorism, policy failures, extremism, and involvement with the Taliban that have negatively impacted the image and perception of Pakistan internationally and in the global community. However, analyzing Pakistan’s image and creating perception has challenged analysts, thinkers, and academicians tremendously. This is so because international media portrays Pakistan as a terrorist state, but upon visiting Pakistan, individuals find the state to be friendly, with its people to be hospitable.

In the preface of his book “Reimagining Pakistan,” Hussain Haqqani mentions multiple perceptions of Pakistan by the international community. One of the most prominent perceptions mentioned in the book was by Richard Leiby, a Washington Post reporter. After spending one year in Pakistan, Leiby, in his interview, mentioned that “Pakistanis are pious, warm, and hospitable people.” Leiby also mentioned that the bad news about Pakistan was not untrue either. Leiby emphasized that Pakistan suffers and pays the price of its leaders’ mistakes (Ḥaqqānī, 2018). Daniel Markey, in his book No Exit from Pakistan, presented the following four perceptions of Pakistan:

1. An elite-dominated dominated basket-case of a country, mired in repressive tradition, making sure a tiny number have possessed a great deal of power and wealth while others don’t.
2. Pakistan is a garrison state that controls the military to dictate national politics.
3. Terrorist incubator nations suffer from the cancerous growth of violent ideologies.
4. The youthful, idealist, reform-minded ambition of the population.

One of the most pertinent causes behind the tarnishing of Pakistan’s national image is its association with terrorism. The image was further tarnished due to Pakistan’s participation in the Global War on Terrorism, a war started by the USA after the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center. Ever since 9/11, Pakistan has developed a new identity on the global radar as a hotbed of terrorism (Ahmad, 2013). Post 9/11, Pakistan’s image abroad has been dramatically tarnished despite the country’s great successes in the anti-terror war and participation in global peacekeeping efforts under the UN aegis. (Masood, 2018). The irony is that the countries that are actually behind terrorism in Pakistan blame Islamabad for terrorism and try to throw dust in the eyes of the world. Pakistan, being the biggest cost-bearer of terrorism, sacrificing above eighty thousand lives in the past, remained unable to deliver its message appropriately to the world. (Nasir, 2021)

Historical Perspective of the Global War on Terror and the Involvement of Pakistan

The event of the 9/11 attack, also known as the New Pearl Harbor, happens to be the last of 18 events that altered the patch of human civilization since 1899(Salik, 2020). On September 10, 2001, the day after the deadly attack, then President George W. Bush, in response to the attacks, said that the attack on American Soil was an attack on the heart and soul of the world (US Department of State, 2001). The 9/11 attacks killed almost 3000 people in a single day (Bakker & Zuijdewijn, 2023). The attacks resulted in an extraordinary concentration on particular forms of transnational political violence(Williams & McDonald, 2018). In the reaction to the attacks, Bush gave an ultimatum to the nations that “every nation in every region now has a decision to make. Either you are with us or you are with terrorists” (HISTORY, 2019). After the 9/11 attacks, many countries drastically invested in counterterrorism (Bakker & Zuijdewijn, 2023).

After 9/11, Bush presented his comprehensive and visionary foreign policy, i.e. raging war against international terrorism, with the hope of being the first and only war of the 20th century. The war, according to the US and Bush’s foreign policy vision, was against those governments that support and shelter terrorists and against all those who seek to export terror. Bush envisioned building a worldwide coalition to destroy Al-Qaeda’s grip on Afghanistan, disrupt Al-Qaeda’s global operations, and disrupt terrorist financing networks (US Department of State, 2001). On the diplomatic front, the US quickly mobilized international support for building an “international coalition” for combating terrorism(Ahmad, 2013).

The 9/11 attack created a new security dilemma for Pakistan(Hussain, 2015). The incidents of September 11 were like a paradigm shift that turned the world upside down. In the words of then-COAS Musharraf, “9/11 came as a thunderbolt” that presented acute challenges (Ahmad, 2013). Most analysts consider Pakistan a strategically sensitive and geographically complicated country, with no exception, whose fate has been disrupted since 9/11 (Lieven, 2012). Strategically sensitive and geographically at a crossroads of South Asia, Pakistan was not an exception to witnessing unprecedented consequences for the war she never called (Lieven, 2012). Pakistan was caught in a catch-22 situation (Salik, 2020). Keeping in mind the national interest and the US’s ‘either with Taliban or with us,’ Pakistan had to be a non-NATO ally to the US, else the state would have bombed back to the Stone Age. The 9/11 attacks hit Pakistan with equally savage forces, putting Pakistan in a position where it faced threats on many fronts, both within and outside (Musharraf, 2006).

Analyzing a historical perspective, we find that during each engagement of Pakistan with the US, there has either been a military or military-dominated government (Hussain, 2005). The pattern continued and was witnessed when the US attacked the Pentagon. During this time, Pakistan was once again under military rule under Musharraf’s leadership. Post 9/11, Musharraf and his Government, within a few days, decided to support the USA against the Taliban because Pakistan was not given much of a choice by the US (Khan, n.d.). It happened because the Pakistan Army knew its strategic overextension was untenable, especially its support for the Taliban and Al Qaeda. During the time 9/11 happened, Pakistan was nearly bankrupt and lacked political will. Moreover, US choices and policies towards Pakistan were complex. (Hussain, 2005). 

Moreover, with the US’s ultimatum of either with us or against us, in the words of Richard Armitage, not only did Pakistan have to decide whether the state was with America or with terrorists, but if Pakistan chose to side with terrorists, it would have witnessed itself bombed back to the Stone Age. Richard Armitage threatened the then DG ISI General Mehmud Ahmed to bomb Pakistan back to the Stone Age(Musharraf, 2006). According to Barnett R. Rubin: “Pakistan could only be a full partner or a target” and “did not have a third option.” (Ahmad, 2013) Musharraf’s decision to be the US’s ally had three following reasons:

1. Military weakness: In comparison with the strength of the US, Pakistan’s military would have been destroyed
2. Economic weakness: Pakistan had no oil, nor did it have any capacity to sustain economic loss
3. Social Weakness: Pakistan lacked the homogeneity that was pertinent to galvanize the entire nation into an active confrontation (Musharraf, 2006)

When the Global War on Terror started, Pakistan, under pressure from the US government, participated in the war. Pakistan was declared a non-NATO ally by the American government, which provided Pakistan with financial as well as military aid. NATO troops used Pakistan to reach Afghanistan. Moreover, Pakistan’s air bases were also given to NATO for attacking Afghanistan(Shehzad et al., 2017). Pakistan’s support to the US in the War on Terror, in the short term, bore its long-term consequences like a declining economy, poor law & order situation, and deteriorating relations with the West (Yamin, 2015). Moreover, and worst of all, it tarnished the soft and national image of Pakistan, acknowledged Musharraf that Pakistan now has a serious image problem (Ahmad, 2013) due to its participation in the GLOBAL WAR ON TERROR as well as due to the policies implemented during the time.

The total of Pakistan’s post-9/11 foreign policy developed a new identity on the global radar screen as a “hotbed of terrorism” (Ahmad, 2013). The war on terror in Pakistan required a whole nation approach from a highly polarised society. Hence, Pakistan’s response remained divided. The religious clergy sided with terrorists with a mission to impose the brand of Islam. Judiciary failed to prosecute terrorists, and the media lived under the shadow of retribution (Salik, 2020). One of the major successes of Pakistan in the Global War on Terror was that of capturing and handling over more than 700 Al-Qaeda operatives in the US. Along with success came a great downside for Pakistan as the military suffered significant material and human losses. Moreover, the war caused colossal damage to the economy as the economic cost of militancy in FATA was only estimated roughly at $19mn(Fayyaz, 2020).

Impact of the Global War on Terror on Pakistan

Then, President Musharraf acknowledged that Pakistan has a serious image problem due to its participation in the Global War on Terror. Pakistan has been a formidable opponent of terrorism while serving as a stronghold for extremism. Pakistan’s involvement in the GWOT contributes significantly to its damaged reputation. (Ahmad, 2013). Moreover, due to its participation, Pakistan suffered from crises like drone attacks, suicide bombings, and fake vaccination cases, all of which had an impact on its national image. 

Drone Attacks

The drone attacks in Pakistan are one of the most unaddressed issues that arose during Pakistan’s participation in the Global War on Terror, which had dire consequences and losses. Drone attacks caused military losses as the Army HQ, Pakistan Naval Base in Mehran, several sensitive installations, and personal belongings of military personnel were attacked upon the launch of a drone strike in FATA from Shamsi Airbase (Yamin, 2015). A total of 114 drone strikes in Pakistan between 2004 and early 2010 killed between 834 and 1214 people, according to the report “The Year of Drone.”(Sehri, 2016).

Fake Polio Vaccine Case

The Fake Polio Vaccine Case was one of the most significant political scandals, igniting terror and disaster in the country. The CIA organized the fake polio vaccination campaign in Abbottabad to obtain DNA from the children of Osama Bin Laden to confirm the presence of his family(“Polio Eradication: The CIA and Their Unintended Victims,” 2014). Dr Shakil Afridi, at the end of January 2011, launched a fake polio vaccination campaign at the behest of CIA officials(Ahmed, 2012). This case showed that Pakistan’s healthcare system lacked political neutrality, which led to the consequences of polio re-emerging as a public health emergency in Pakistan.

Moreover, Pakistan is one of only four countries, apart from India, Afghanistan, and Nigeria, where polio remains an epidemic(“Polio Eradication: The CIA and Their Unintended Victims,” 2014). In the year 2011, 326 polio cases were reported in these countries. Out of those 326 cases, 197 cases were reported from Pakistan (Ahmed, 2012). This scandal added more to the injury as the entire incident ignited distrust. It is unclear how to samples were collected or how they led to Bin Laden, but many local leaders began urging people not to get their children vaccinated, and this continues to date (Iqbal, 2021).

Suicide Bombing

Suicide bombing is one of Pakistan’s major problems, and it has devastating repercussions. The GWOT is strongly related to this problem. Militant organizations have carried out the majority of suicide bombings to weaken the nation and the government’s efforts to combat terrorism. From 2002 till July 2010, more than 3719 people lost their lives in almost 257 suicide bombing attacks, injuring more than 9464(Syed, 2010). However, even after 2010, suicide bombing attacks continued inside Pakistan.

According to South Asia Terrorism Portal (SATP), from 2001 to 2021, a total number of 595 suicide attacks were carried out in Pakistan, resulting in the deaths of 11068 people and injuring more than 14312(Ahmed et al., 2021). According to the National Counterterrorism Center, on April 16, 2010, a suicide bomber opened fire on people in Quetta Hospital, killing 12 and wounding 40. Lashkar-e-Jhangvi claimed responsibility for the attack. Moving further, on July 9, 2010, a suicide bomber attacked a government building in Yakagund, resulting in the killing of 62 and more than 110 individuals getting wounded (National Counterterrorism Center, 2010).

Political Weakness

According to Dr Shabana Fayyaz in her acclaimed dissertation, Pakistan is seen as a domestic effluent of its flawed politics, bad governance, lack of social justice, and rule of law (Fayyaz, 2020). This is a core reason for Pakistan to face policy challenges and failures during the era of the Global War on Terror. One of the policy challenges faced by Pakistan was due to Musharraf’s rationalized decision, critical to the security of national security assets. Moreover, Musharaf’s policy, which was dominated by force-based tactics, added to the misery of ordinary people of FATA as they felt to were treated as second-rate citizens(Fayyaz, 2020).

Constructivist Analysis

National Identity and Image in Crisis

According to constructivism, national identity is neither static nor fixed; rather, it’s fluid and dynamic and is shaped by perceptions and interactions. In the case of the Global War on Terror, Pakistan’s national image and identity were reshaped due to the external war that played a role in reshaping its perception. This identity shift occurred due to interaction with the US, the global power.

Pakistan, a weaker nation compared to the USA, must comply with the US and cooperate with it. This cooperation and internal challenges of national integration led Pakistan to have a dual perception that impacted its national image. On the domestic level, Pakistan was perceived as a country participating in a foreign war, earning the title of non-NATO ally; however, on the international level, the image was tarnished as Pakistan was known to be a breeding ground for terrorism due to elements of mistrust of the Pakistani government by Washington. 

Role of Social Constructs in Policy Failures

According to constructivism, social constructs such as threat perception, international values, and identities play a crucial role in influencing policies, leading them either towards failure or success. In the case of Pakistan, during the Global War on Terror, policy failures were witnessed, which were primarily due to societal elements within as well as beyond the borders.

The primary social consturcut that was developed about Pakistan due to her participation in war was a dual identity at one hand it was a nation complying to superpower and obeying the order of do more and on other hand due to weakened social fabric, double game of government Pakistan was perceived as a nation complying to terrorism and providing a safe heaven to them which was evident in case of Osama Bin Laden hunt and fake polio vaccination controversy. 

Due to these conflicting identities, Pakistan’s suffered from policy failures primarily due to inconsistency and lack of balance. 

Diverging Domestic Narratives

In the light of constructivist theory, it is social interactions that shape the identity and consequently impact the image and perception. When Pakistan was playing its role in the war on terror, there were diverging narratives and internal conflicts between social groups as well as between the masses and the government, which constructed such an image of Pakistan that was a victim of fragmentation, divergence, lack of unity, and inconsistencies. On the domestic level government tried to construct an image of Pakistan as a nation combating terrorism in an effort to nip the evil in the bud, to develop an alliance with a powerful nation, and to comply with them. However, religious groups felt that the war was anti-Islamic since it was waged against Afghan Muslim brothers; hence, they framed the war as a conspiracy against Islam and were of the view that Pakistan’s participation in the war was a deception and betrayal. These views of religious militants attracted the masses as they appealed to their sentiments, particularly within tribal regions, as they were the victims of events like drone attacks.

Conclusion

Analyzing from a constructivist lens, it is therefore concluded that social interactions, policy factors, international pressure, and geostrategic location play a crucial role in impacting a nation’s identity and image either positively or negatively. In the case of Pakistan, her participation in the Global War on Terror was a turning point that significantly impacted her perception. Internal weaknesses, policy failures, media framing, lack of trust, divided society played a crucial role in constructing an image of Pakistan that has repercussions even after the withdrawal from Afghanistan and the end of the war.

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