Introduction
The term “Balkanization” is defined as the fragmentation or division of a larger region or sovereign state into smaller ethnically homogenous regions or states. The term was coined in the 19th century after the disintegration of the Balkan Peninsula into smaller states that were entirely ruled by the Ottoman Empire between 1817 and 1912. The states included in the Balkan Peninsula were Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia.
The term gained significance in the aftermath of World War I due to the emergence of new, smaller states following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The main reasons for these state splits are ethnic, cultural, and religious differences, but they can also align with other political movements such as anti-colonialism, nationalism, independence, or imperialism.
Historic Origins of the Term
The Islamic-run Ottoman Empire, one of the most influential and enduring empires in world history, ruled vast regions of the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and North Africa for over 600 years. The Ottoman territories maintained strong political and economic ties with Europe throughout their existence. The empire was renowned for its tremendous contributions in the fields of art, science, and medicine.
It was a diverse mosaic of languages and religions, and its extensive modernization efforts impacted not only modern Turkey but also other Muslim states. For many centuries, the Balkan Peninsula under Ottoman rule was one of the few places in Europe known for its tolerance of different religions, ethnicities, and cultures. Although the Ottoman Empire was viewed as a threat by many in Western Europe, historians often see the empire as a stabilizing and secure force in the region.
The decline of the Ottoman Empire began long before the term “Balkanization” was coined. The downfall of the empire started after the Russo-Turkish Wars in the 1580s. Its power was further diminished by the Crimean War, fought from 1853 to 1856. Even though in 1856, the Congress of Paris acknowledged the independence of the Ottoman Empire, its influence as a European power was weakening continuously.
A map of the Balkans around 1620 shows the region during the height of Ottoman rule. However, numerous rebellions had caused the empire to lose more of its territories by the late 1800s. The rise of Turkish nationalism and the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 accelerated the contraction of the empire and heightened its internal turmoil, which damaged its reputation on the world stage. The Ottoman Empire officially disintegrated after World War I, with the Treaty of Sevres in 1920 dividing much of its territory among states like France, the United Kingdom, Greece, and Italy, and establishing large occupation zones within the remaining Ottoman lands.
The term “Balkanization” often carries an adverse connotation, especially when a third-party sovereign state encourages or supports the breakup of another state. It is used to accuse such third-party states of aggressive political intervention. Geopolitical analyst Michel Foucher defines Balkanization as the continuous involvement of foreign powers, such as Germany, France, Austro-Hungary, Russia, and Great Britain, in an effort to build or defend their own spheres of influence. This dynamic was made clear in the 1990s when Yugoslavia used military force to suppress the independence movement in Kosovo, and Russia interfered in Chechnya.
Today, the Balkans and the concept of balkanization are often associated with the disintegration of multiethnic states into dictatorships, ethnic cleansing, and civil war. However, this term can be misleading and biased. According to historians, imperialistic powers usually use this argument to shift focus away from their own policies that foster ethnic divisions.
Bulgarian historian and philosopher Maria Todorova, in her 1997 book “Imagining the Balkans,” illustrates a common prejudice: blaming the Ottoman heritage and Turkey for the 20th-century problems in the Balkans, while Western Europe is seen as relatively innocent. This stereotype portrays Balkan cultures as “oriental, unpredictable, dangerous, chaotic, dirty, lazy, primitive, cruel, selfish, and uncooperative.” However, historical evidence shows that the people belonging to the region have a history of tolerance, cooperation, and hard work.
Examples of Balkanization
The phenomenon of “Balkanization” was notably observed in Eastern Europe, dating back to the Ottoman Empire. In the early 1990s, the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia led to the formation of several new states. These states often faced challenges due to their diverse ethnic compositions, resulting in periods of instability and conflict. The deteriorating state of Soviet leaders’ monuments, such as those of Stalin and Lenin, reflects the reality of the dissolution of the former Soviet Union.
Independence after the Soviet Union
Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, a number of nations, including Belarus, Lithuania, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, and Armenia, gained or regained their independence. Claiming that these countries were “created” by the fall of the Soviet Union is incorrect since it ignores their complex and unique historical backgrounds.
On February 23, 2022, for example, Russian President Vladimir Putin invaded Ukraine without prior warning. This invasion was made possible by a hypocritical narrative that claimed Ukraine was never a separate nation and that it “belonged” to Russia as a component of “Great Russia” and the “Russian World.” In conflict with reality, Putin’s arguments deny the existence of the Ukrainian people, language, and history.
The Battle and Resilience of Ukraine
The devastation that occurred in Irpin, Ukraine, on March 3, 2022, has brought attention to Russia’s ongoing attack on important Ukrainian cities. Between 1917 and 1921, the Ukrainian People’s Republic was formed as a result of the civil war. After the Bolshevik Red Army seized power in late 1919, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was established as one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union on December 30, 1922. The official language of the Soviet Union was originally Ukrainian, but by the 1930s, the focus had moved to “Russification,” or the forced adoption of Russian language and culture by non-Russians.
In 1932-1933, Holodomor, a man-made famine orchestrated by the Soviet Union in response to Ukrainian opposition to Russification, ultimately resulted in the death of millions of Ukrainians. Similarly, in the Soviet Union, another 6–8 million people died of starvation during this time, out of which 4–5 million were Ukrainians.
During World War II, the Ukrainian Army fought with both Germany and the Soviet Union for their country’s freedom. In 1953, Nikita Khrushchev—a Ukrainian—led the Communist Party, which made it possible for a rebirth of Ukrainian culture. In 1954, Crimea was moved from Russia to Ukraine; yet, the political subjugation of intellectuals continued across the USSR.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine moved to a market economy, going through an eight-year recession without a GDP recovery. At the same time, it also experienced another economic downturn during the Great Recession. In a referendum held on December 1, 1991, more than 90% of voters approved of Ukraine’s declaration of independence on August 24, 1991. NATO admitted Ukraine to its Partnership for Peace on February 8, 1994. In June 1994, Russia became a part of the initiative and took part in cooperation efforts until 2014, when NATO ended relations with Russia as a result of growing tensions. Thirteen former Soviet governments finally joined NATO, in spite of Russia’s resistance.
The Disintegration of Yugoslavia
Another prominent example of Balkanization is the dissolution of former Yugoslavia. Before its disintegration, it comprised various ethnic groups such as Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, and Slovenes. Unfortunately, tensions escalated among these groups and led to the formation of the six republics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. This system prevailed under Josip Broz Tito’s direction until the 1980s.
Protests by Albanians in Kosovo in 1981 resulted in calls for republic status, which raised tensions with Kosovo Serbs and strengthened Serbian resistance to the federal system. Moreover, Slobodan Milosevic came to power in Serbia in 1987 and took control of Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro.
Western nations, such as Slovenia and Croatia, resisted Milosevic because they were democratizing through various populist measures. The ethnic separatist groups emerged victorious everywhere except for in Serbia and Montenegro, where Milosevic’s supporters prevailed during the first multi-party elections held in 1990 in Yugoslavia.
With the rise of the nationalist rhetoric, four republics claimed their independence by 1991–1992, leaving just Serbia and Montenegro as a federation. With the official dissolution of Yugoslavia on February 4, 2003, Serbia and Montenegro were formed.
The Breakup of Serbia and Montenegro
After a vote on independence was conducted in Montenegro in 2006, Serbia and Montenegro broke apart and two new republics were formed. Unresolved ethnic tensions led to the Yugoslav Wars, which were mainly worse in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the region, the conflicts wrecked long-lasting political and economic upheaval.
Conclusion
Therefore, Balkanization delves into the complex relationship of ethnic, cultural, and political difficulties by dividing larger regions into smaller, frequently antagonistic entities. In addition to illustrating the value of pursuing self-determination, it serves as an alarming situation against the instability and conflict that might result from inherent differences. Balkanization ultimately puts pressure on the international community to address the root causes of division, and to promote democratic and harmonious governance.
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